Brain-based research on bilingualism

Language Acquisition and Baby Talk Synthesis

                Babies’ language development is greatly influenced by their home language environments. Since babies in their mothers’ wombs become able to hear at around 20 weeks, their language acquisition starts before they are born. Even after they are born, “babies as young as seven months can distinguish between, and begin to learn, two languages with vastly different grammatical structures” (University of British Columbia, 2013). Bilingualism has already started at this point. Around eight months of age, they start to babble, which is a sign of trying to imitate spoken words. According to University of Iowa (2014), “infants whose mothers responded to what they thought their babies were saying, showed an increase in developmentally advanced, consonant-vowel vocalizations, which means the babbling has become sophisticated enough to sound more like words”. This means babies learn language based on what they hear. Since they attend to their caregivers’ conversations and try to understand the meanings, they will be able to separate the use of the two languages if they are raised in bilingual environments. Therefore, the researchers consider that “the best way for children to learn a second language is through social interactions and daily exposure to the language” (University of Washington, 2011).

Language Acquisition and the Impact of Speaking More Than One Language

                Even though there may still be a concern that bilingual children may get confused about the use of two languages, speaking more than one language has positive impacts on the way languages are acquired. According to Association for Psychological Science (2013), bilinguals have two different sounds systems and they can switch between one language and the other by using the sound systems, if they learn two languages at an early age. In addition, University of Haifa (2011) explains “languages reinforce one another, and provide tools to strengthen phonologic, morphologic and syntactic skills. These skills provide the necessary basis for learning to read”. By gaining this strong basis, bilinguals develop a critical cognitive function, which allows them to smoothly learn another language. Moreover, “bilingualism serves as enrichment for the brain and has real consequences when it comes to executive function (Northwestern University, 2012)”. Therefore, “bilingual children develop a better working memory (University of Granada, 2013)” and “are faster and more efficient in certain tasks in which executive functions are used due to a different form of cerebral control (Universitat Jaume I, 2010)”. Bilinguals seem to be able to efficiently develop their language skills.  

Impact of Second Language Acquisition After Adolescence

                According to Cell Press (2012), “lifelong experience in managing attention to two languages reorganizes specific brain network, creating a more effective basis for executive control and sustaining better cognitive performance throughout the lifespan”. This means second language acquisition after adolescence presents several benefits in daily life. One of the benefits is that bilinguals can focus on what really matters and ignore what doesn’t (Northwestern University, 2014). This is because they are better at filtering out the competing words since their brains are used to controlling two languages and inhibiting the irrelevant words (Northwestern University, 2014). Since bilinguals develop better inhibitory control, they can work more effectively and efficiently than monolinguals. Another benefit is that bilingualism may delay aging. As one ages, his or her cognitive flexibility declines. However, since speaking more than one language can constantly stimulate cognitive activity, consequently, it can prevent cognitive function from slowing down. Northwestern University's Viorica Marian (2014) describes, "Using another language provides the brain built-in exercise. You don't have to go out of your way to do a puzzle because the brain is already constantly juggling two languages". This may also play a protective role against Alzheimer's disease and dementia.  

Language Development 4: 27 months old

Ai was pretending to read, using the sticker and clearly said " rabbit", " the end " and " I did it".

Linguistic/Cultural Research Chart: Japanese, Hindi and Chinese

Linguistic/Cultural Research Chart

English contrasts with Japanese

Phonology 1.     The Japanese language contains only five vowels and 17 consonants which are pronounced basically with regular lengths, so Japanese speaker find the English sound system confusing (personal knowledge). 2.     Consonants in Japanese are always followed by a vowel (personal knowledge). “Most Japanese beginners of English therefore tend to attach vowels after English words which end in consonants” (Kavanagh, 2007). 3.     “English has nine phonemes, while Japanese has only five. This fact can be a major source of problems for Japanese students of English” (Kavanagh, 2007). For example, Japanese have difficulty saying the differences between /b/ and /v/ and /l/and /r/. 4.     Word and syllable stress and intonation are not so important in Japanese as in English, so English speech made by Japanese learners may sound flat (personal knowledge).

Morphology/Syntax (Grammar) 1.     The Japanese word order is subject-object-verb, so Japanese learners have difficulty constructing English sentences (personal knowledge). 2.     Japanese does not have articles so Japanese learners struggle with English articles (personal knowledge). 3.     In Japanese, each morpheme is represented by one Chinese character and alphabetic writing is not employed, so Japanese learners need to start with learning alphabets and often struggle with English spellings (personal knowledge).

Culture of Japanese Issues for teachers/students/parents 1.     “Japanese students often regard making mistakes in their communication in English as inappropriate” (Furuhata, 1999, p.140). Therefore, the teachers should have a positive attitude when they correct the students’ mistakes so that they do not feel embarrassed. 2.     “The Japanese tendency to avoid direct and plain statements, their inclination to silence, and the different way they use backchannels in conversation” (Cutrone, 2010), so teachers should explicitly explain how they should answer and give ample time.

English contrasts with Hindi

Phonology 1.     “Unlike English, vowel length and vowel nasalization are meaningful in Hindi” (Gambhir, 2009). Therefore, Hindi speakers may face several problems of English pronunciation, for example, distinguishing phonemes in words such as said/ sad; par/ paw etc. (Shoebottom, 2017). 2.     “Hindi script is largely phonetic (one sound per letter and one letter per sound)” (Gambhir, 2009) and “the pronunciation of new words can be reliably predicted from their written form” (Shoebottom, 2017), so Hindi speakers may take time learning English spelling. 3.     “The phoneme /ʒ / as exemplified by the s in pleasure is missing in Hindi and so pronunciation of such words is difficult” (Shoebottom, 2017). For example, “the s in pleasure is missing in Hindi and so pronunciation of such words is difficult” (Shoebottom, 2017).

Morphology/Syntax (Grammar) 1.     “The basic word order in Hindi is Subject-Object-Verb. The word order in Hindi is not fixed like English” (Gambhir, 2009). Consequently, Hindi speakers may face problems of word order in English sentences. 2.     “Hindi has postpositions and not prepositions, as they are placed after their nouns and pronouns” (Gambhir, 2009). Hindi speakers tend to struggle with choosing appropriate English prepositions. 3.     There are no articles in Hindi (Gambhir, 2009). Therefore, English article usage presents Hindi speakers some problems.

Culture of Indian Issues for teachers/students/parents 1.     “The concept of 'Indian culture' is a very complex and complicated matter. Because Indian citizens are divided into various ethnic, religious, caste, linguistic and regional groups. It makes the realities of "Indianness" extremely complicated” (Wikipedia, 2017). Understanding each Indian student’s difference is important.  2.     “Religion plays a central and definitive role in the life of many of its people” (Wikipedia, 2017), so teachers should know Indian students’ beliefs.

English contrasts with Chinese

Phonology 1.     In Chinese, the meanings of words are clarified according to four main tones. Therefore, Chinese speakers may struggle with acquiring English stress patterns and intonation (personal knowledge). 2.     Chinese does not have some English phonemes. Chinese speakers often have difficulty distinguishing the pronunciations of /l/ and /r/ (personal knowledge). 3.     The use of Pinyin, spelled sounds may confuse Chinese speakers when they pronounce English words, because Pinyin is the Romanization system of Chinese (personal knowledge).

Morphology/Syntax (Grammar) 1.     The Chinese language does not have articles, so the use of English articles is confusing to Chinese students (personal knowledge). 2.     Adverb phrases are placed differently in Chinese and English sentences. Chinese students may struggle with word order in English sentences (personal knowledge).

Culture of Chinese Issues for teachers/students/parents. 1.     “In China, arguing with the teacher is often considered challenging the credibility and authority of the teacher” (Yuan, 2011), so creating a welcoming classroom environment where Chinese students feel free to express their opinions is necessary. 2.     “English education in China mainly relies on written tests to evaluate students’ performance with less emphasis on speaking and listening skills. Hence, many Chinese students didn’t feel confident to speak English in class” (Yuan, 2011). Teachers should to try to provide instruction effective for developing their oral English skills.